Calendar Of Surveying - Global Surveyors Day

-4713 to 2014

-4713	Julian datum. Counting days commenced. 01.01.1960 had
	JD 2 436 935.00 astro. days
-4200	Babylonian year of 365 days
-4000	Babylonian land title and law suits on clay tablets
-3800	Babylonians used analog devices for surveying and map making
-3500	Glass in Egypt
-3000	Northern cubit a standard of length. Mesopotamia, Egypt, N Africa, India, China
-3000	Egyptian river gauge called the Palermo stone.
-3000	Egyptian world a rectangular box, Egypt in centre, sky was a flat or domed ceiling supported by columns or high mountains.
-2900	Glass in Mesopotamia. A lens from Nineveh in Br. Museum
-2780	Pyramids erected first at Gizeh by Cheops et al. Base perimeter = ½ geog. mile
-2600	Egyptian standard of length on grey basalt column 53 cm long.
-2500	Egyptian foot = ½ northern cubit = 13.2 inch. Egypt and Indus valley.
-2290	Gudea, High priest shown on tablet holding a plane table on his knees.
	Statue of Gidea in Louvre, shows Sumerian cubit = 30 fingers = 19.6 inch
	This standard used to set out Tower of Babel (Ziggurat of Ur).
??	Egyptian papyrus map of Nubian goldmines near Koptos.
-2000	Crude lenses in Crete and coast of Asia Minor, made of rock crystal.
-2000	Nine Chinese bronze vases depicted nine provinces + mountains, rivers etc
-2000	Babylonians used astronomical phenomena for astrological purposes.
-2000	Chaldeans divided day and night into 12 hours each.
	Predicted eclipses, equator divided to 360º, named 12 signs of zodiac.
-2000	Mathematics for surveyors began with the triangle.
-2000	Chinese algebra began
	Greeks solved problems by geometrical means.
	Babylonians advanced into cubic and biquadratic equations.
-2000	Egyptian unequal hour shadow clock.
-1850	Egyptian papyrus on geometrical problems.
-1850	Babylonian clay tablet on survey problems. Contained threats to those
	who might remove boundary stones.
-1800	Stonehenge erected.
-1800	Pythagorean theorem
-1700	Egypt- much practical geometry used in land surveying .
-1700	Babylonia, Egypt. Computing area and volumes requiring fractions and pi.
-1550?	Egypt, Rhind papyrus describing mensuration, fractions, areas.
-1550	Egyptian Royal Cubit of Amenhotep I. Now in Louvre.
-1500	to -200. Chinese surveyors had plumbob, gnomon, water level, counting rods, hand computer, magnetic c ompass, square, groma.
-1450	to -550. Many relics show Babylonian boundary surveys.
-15th C	Chinese daycount not dependent on sun or moon. Sexagesimal cycles.
-15th C	Clepsydra in Babylonia and Egypt.
-1400	Text of the time of kurigalzu on ancient boundary stone.
-1400	Egyptian tomb with pictures of sounding Nile with lead line.
-1361	First record of lunar eclipse in China.
-1350	Or -1220. Sacred cubit of Moses = 25 in. = Northern cubit.
-14th C	28 lunar mansions = moon stations of zodiac in Chinese literature.
-13th C	Lunation of 29.53 days in China
-1250	Ramses II (-1292t o -1225) instructed to erect tomb for a surveying engineer.
-1217	First record of solar eclipse in China.
-12th C	Egypt. Simple and complex geometrical figures on urns etc
-1125	Official topographic description of China by Wen-Wang.
-1000	Or -600. Chinese jade work associated with circumpolar constellation templets.
	Forerunners of the European nocturnal of +1150.
-969	Israel. Solomon built temple using Northern cubit (= 0.64 m)
-900	To -500. Homeric Epics mention constellations Orion, Pleiades, Great Bear.
-800	India. Sulvasutras- had chapter on setting out by ropes and rt. angled triangles.
-780	China. Earthquakes recorded.
-750	Hesiodos of Ascra recorded some astronomy.
-721	Moon eclipse recorded by Babylonians
-715	Hezekiah, 12th King of Judah, had water conduit of 1098 ft built in Jerusalem. Lateral breakthrough 20 ft.
-700	Assyrian cubit on baked clay cylinder used to set out Khorsabad.
-672	Chinese bronze mirrors.
-654	Winter solstice in China- observed sun shadow with gnomon on tower.
-600	Phoenicians used Little Bear for navigation.
-600	Periandros of Greece contemplated canal through Isthmus of Corinth
-6th C	Theodorus of Samos had right-angle instruments
-6th C	China had decimal foot rules in bronze. Ten Chinese inches into tens
-6th C	Yang-Chheng gnomon 6 ft high, extant 1966. Shadow 1.5 ft at summer solstice
-6th C	Pythagoras and his disciples declared earth as a sphere.
	Thales calculated heights of mountains from shadow length.
	Thales observed power of the magnet
	Glass made locally in China
	Pythagoras’ theory on rays running from eye to object.
-592	Ezekiel described what he saw from top of a mountain – ie cadastral “map”
-575	Sundials delivered from Babylonians or Chaldeans to Greeks.
-538	Josua spent most of his life on cadastral surveys. Knotted cords
-532	Philolaos discussed rotation of planets including sun around “fire”.
-500	Babylonians expressed large numbers in multiples of 60.
	Chinese large numbers in multiples of 10.
	Romans expressed larger numbers in multiples of 12 or 16.
	Democritus – formula for volume of pyramid.
	– to + 1300. Development of cosmological theories.
	Aristagoras – maps on bronze and iron tablets
	Babylonian world map on clay tablet.
-5th C	Antiphon, calculus to measure magnitudes of exhaustion.
	Herodotus attributed beginning of geometry to annual overflow of R Nile.
	He described aquaduct / tunnel on Samos.
-480	Greece – 6 mile canal through Mt Athos peninsula.
-475	Parmenides “moon shines with reflected light”.
-450	Heracleides – geocentric system of planets. Some round sun, others about earth.
	Earth rotated about its own axis.
-408	Eudoxus explained maths of celestial motions. 27 spheres.
-400	First armillary rings in China. 1464 stars in Chinese catalogue.
-400	China. Mohists proposed standardisation of length measure.
-400	Indian method of meridian determination in Surya Siddhanta.
	Romans attempted orientation of temples, tombs, cities etc.
-4th C	Chou Pei Suan Ching publication on maths and astronomy.
	Water level to get horz. surface for sun shadow. Meridian from sun rise and set.
-4th C	Studies on vision. Refraction. Reflection. refractive index etc
-4th C	Heaven likened to Hen’s egg, earth to yolk. Circ. 365¼º
	Shih Shen’s and other star catalogues including Hipparchos.
	China. Heaven has 9 layers. Distance to sky 20000 li = 6000 km
	Sun illuminates 167000 li diameter (= 50000 km)
	Theophrastus and Eudemos wrote histories on cosmography and early astro.
	Dikaearchos (-350–290) idea of reference line to orient maps. Ran W – E
-384	Aristotle increased Eudoxus spheres to 55. Concluded earth a sphere.
-350	Menaechmos, rectangular coord axes. Maybe founder of analytical geometry.
-330	Theoretical geometry applied to physical science by Mohist Canon Mo Ching.
	Mention of carpenter’s square.
-313	onwards. Romans built Aqua Appia. See quote Werner Calendar p 10
-312	Aristarchos postulated heliocentric system of planets. Defined ecliptic.
	Rotation of earth about own axis. Angle between sun and half moon = 87º
	really 89º 51′. Distance sun-earth 19 x dist. moon-earth. Should be 389 times
-300	Euclid’s 15 vol. on mathematics, especially geometry.
-300	Greeks. Complex analogs of solar system
-300	Start of 500 year domination of Univ. of Alexandria in scientific life.
-300	Indian world map allowed China 1/81 of world surface.
-3rd C	Apollonius used coordinate axes.
-3rd C	Eratosthenes size of earth Alexandria – Syene.
-3rd C	China. Minute appreciation of topographic features.
-3rd C	Ctesibius refined clepsydra with float.
-3rd C	to + 6th C. Chinese cosmology- heavens a spherical dome, earth an upturned
	bowl. Distance between domes 80000 li
-290	to -212. Archimedes staff with flat disc held to cover sun.
-290	Archimedes solved problems of calculus, analytical and differential geometry
-284	Eratosthenes suggested coordinate grid over a spherical earth.
	Fundamental parallel through Rhodes and meridian thro’ Syene, Alexandria etc
	Lu Pu-Wei assumed earth as flat disc.
-270	Eudoxus’ work made known through Phenomena and Prognostica.
-270	Berossos. Inverted hemisphere known as a scaphe.
-260	Aristarchos. Tangent ratio in right angles.
-250	Time by hour glass
-250	Chinese astronomers and mathematicians defined pi 3.14159
-250	Timosthenes of Rhodes. Sea charts with distances between harbours
-240	Halley’s comet of +1682 first recorded in China.
-240	China. Hodometer -drum carriage to count miles.
-227	First record of Chinese silk map carried in a wooden box to hide a dagger.
-210	Chinese relief model of R. Yangtze.
-207	Emperor Chhin Shih Huang-Ti collected Empire maps.
-200	Registration of boundaries of areas travelled by Chinese emperors.
-200	China. 2 ten ft gnomon 1000 li apart N-S. Shadow decreased 1 inch per 1000 li
-200	Four cardinal points fixed. Data determined for a calendar.
-200	Appollonius introduced epicycles.
-2nd C	Chinese used negative numbers
-190	to -125. Hipparchos eccentricty of earth orbit 1/24 RE (really 1/60 RE).
	Year as 365d 5h 55m (really 49m). Invented? astrolabe.
-177	Persia. Seleucid Greeks constructed tunnels marked by line of well shafts.
c -150	Heron’s dioptra for areas, inaccessible heights etc
	He described standardisation of measuring ropes. Water level and staff.
-150	Crates. Suggested representing earth as globe divided to 4 equal continents.
-140	Hipparchus used terms mekos and platos – longitude and latitude.
-140	Seleucos studied tides in Persian Gulf.
-140	Hipparchus. Graphical solution of spherical triangles.
-130	Hipparchos introduced term climata for area between parallels.
-120	Chinese gnomon up to 40 ft high.
-120	China. Chuang-Hsiung-Phi built Dragon Head canal with shafts and tunnels.
	Used metal sighting tube for distance. Water level. Compass. Plumb line.
-104	Sundials in China with plate inclined in equatorial plane, gnomon pointing at the pole. Some dials with centesimal graduation.
-1st C	Posidonius distancs sun-earth 13000 RE (actually 23400)
-1st C	Caesar planned complete survey of empire. Responsible for Roman roads and aquaducts in Italy, France, Germany etc.
-1st C	Posidonius gave meridian quadrant as 11000 km
-100	Egypt. Edfu temple has erroneous inscription on area of quadrilateral.
-90	Historical record of Chinese astronomy written by Ssuma Chhien.
-60	Nero’s engineers began Corinth canal. Abandoned for fear of diff in levels
-52	Chinese permanently fixed equatorial ring on armillary.
-50	Large clepsydra in Tower of Winds, Athens
-46	Calendar troubles. Last year before commencement of Julian calendar
	lasted 445 days. Sosigenes prepared new work.
-15	Vitruvius reported on automatic timepiece- Horologium anaphoricum- had astrolabe disc with a net of projected parallels and meridians. Water driven.
+4	Boundary line in Wurttemberg 80 km long.Resurveyed 1911. Out of
	alignment by 2 m in 29 km.
+5	China. Chia Liang Hu by Liu Hsin, a model to define standard measures.
pre +7	Balbus constructed right angle with aid of a semi-circle.
18	Roman wall map
32	Relief maps modelled in rice.
60	Apostle Paul report on sounding lines
69	Diviner’s board with compass indications, symbolic rep. of heaven and earth.
80	Wang Chhung discussed dependence of sea tides on moon.
83	China. First self-registering direction finder.
84	China. Ecliptic armillary ring.
89	Chia Khuei, precise definition of ecliptic.
1st C	Fort Caburn, Sussex set out with Sumerian ft of 20 shusi as standard.
1st C	Cinerarium in Vatican Gardens portrayed in relief the Roman ft measure.
1st C	Difference between Greek and Chinese mathematics
1st C	Geocentric system of planets.
100	Chang Heng scientific cartography in China used rectangular grid.
100	Menelaos wrote Spherics containing the sine function.
100	China. South pointing carriage.
100	Heron’s De Speculis on mirrors and angle of reflection.
105	Mechanical process of paper making from plant fibres.
107	South pointers frequently mentioned – lodestone; wet and dry models
120	Ptolemy insisted maps to be based on astro. obs. Longitude in terms of time coords. and not guesses. Lats by transits of circumpolar stars.
120	Chinese Pan Ku and Pan Chao used coordinate system
125	Horizon and meridian rings added to Chinese armilleries.
130	Chinese star catalogue of 2500 stars + 11250 smaaler ones counted.
150	Ptolemaic chord tables. First mention of abacus by Hsu Yo.
164	Gnomon shadow template of jade
178	China. Calendar reform. Ideas on obliquity similar to Eratosthenes.
190	Shu Shu Chi-I mention of calendrical astronomy.
2nd C	Anti-Kythera machine. Anaphoric clocks in Hellene.
200	China. Hydrographic record. Marine navigation.
200	China. Cosmology of infinite empty space.
230	Chao Ta, dial and pointer system for direction finding.
250	Indirect height measurement.
263	Chinese text on measuring heights and distances with poles bearing crossbars.
265?	Precession of equinoxes by Yu Hsi (or 320?)
267	China. Levelling. Measuring curves and straights to reduce for slope.
275	Diophantus called negative numbers absurd.
3rd C	Chinese calculus. Roman abacus. Celestial globe.
3rd C	Ref. to crosswire grid. Length standards for small distances based on
	diameter of silk thread = 1 hu.
330	Pytheus travelled Europe et al reporting on tides and other topics.
4th C	Magnetic needles in China
4th C	First Chinese star map.
400	Indians produced modern trigonometry as Paulisa Siddhanta.
445	Ho Chheng-Thien simultaneous obs. at Hanoi and Hue gave decrease in shadow with latitude of 3.56 in per 1000 li.
450	Chinese wood relief 10 ft square.
475	Indeterminate analysis in China.
480	Pi to 3.1415929203 by Tsu Chhung-Chih. Finite differences in astronomy.
5th C	Marcellus and Pliny the Elder reported on repellant force of lodestone.
500	Li Tau-Nguan commented on hydrography in China in 40 volumes.
500	Chang Chiu-Chien noted survey problems using right angled triangles.
505	Varaha-Mihira used sines and c osines.
510	Aryabhata gave name sinus to that function. Tables x 1 degree
540	Cassiodoros reported on science of land surveying.
548	Multiplication tables by Li Nien.
570	Chinese computations by abacus.
6th C	Arabs created terms zenith, nadir, azimuth.
6th C	Arabs determined obliquity of the ecliptic.
600	Seismograph by Lin.
604	Liu Chhuo selected baselines in flat country along meridian through
	Honan and Hopei to determine time by clepsydra and to set gnomons.
632	Astro. obs. tower in Korea about 30 ft high. Use a pin hole to determine
	shadow length to 3 dec. places of a foot.
640	Arabs observed stars with 20 ft quadrant and 56 ft stone sextant at Abul Welfa.
	Some obs. in connection with geodetic baselines.
646	China. Schools of surveying established.
	Japanese emperor pordered production of cadastral maps.
7th C	Codex Arcerianus (Irish) described survey practice and legal aspects.
7th C	European churches oriented N.
7th C	China. Magnetic declination discovered.
7th C	Japanese used south indicator.
7th C	Balance arm clepsydra at Antioch.
713	Mechanical clockwork in China.
713	to 800. Terrestrial civil unit fixed as 1/351 Chinese degree.
716	Original Arabian foot shown on column. The Nilometer.
718	Indian sine tables traslated into Chinese
721	to 725. Eleven Chinese obs. points on line through Hue (not on same meridian)
	Hue 17.9ºN Weichow 40ºN. Diff. shadow lengths 4 in/ 1000 li.
723	Clockwork escapement invented in China.
725	I-Hsing. Armillary spheres with ecliptically mounted sighting tubes.
777	Al-Fazari under Al-Masur made first Arabic astrolabe.
	Arabian plumb bob recorded at that time.
8th C	Arabs used carpenter’s s quare (Kunija) larger than a groma.
8th C	Significance of metric system recognised in China.
	Attempts to define terrestrial units in terms of astro. or geodetic constants.
800	Windroses developed by Vikings.
800	Arabian manuscript on astrolabes.
820	Al-Kwarizmi developed Hindu number system and algebra.
	Text on algebra in which the word was invented.
827	Arabs measured baselines near Baghdad.
840	Camera obscura in China.
850	Arabs mechanised papermaking.
850	Al-Battani added the shadow square to the astrolabe.
871	Alfred the Great determined inch as 3 grains of barley, dry, round.
9th C	Arabs rejected earth rotation about own axis.
900	Ibn Jabir ibn Sinan al Baltani concept of tan and cotan.
950	Gerbert conveyed Muslim surveying knowledge to the West.
970	Abul-Wafa al-Buzjani concept of secant and cosecant.
975	King Edgar ordained 3 ft = 1 yard.
992	Decimal system for weight became official in China.
10th C	Sighting tube reported in a codex of St Gallen monastery.
1000	Hamid Ibn al Khidr al-Khujandi sextant radius 57 ft.
1080	Chinese maps, reasonably accurate, at 1:31 680
1086	Shen Kua, enguineer and surveyor, determined lengths of arcs and
	produced tables on chords and arcs. Arc = chord + S.S/R (S= mid ordinate. He also set out canals, slopes, levelling dams etc by water level.
1090	Su Sung’s astronomical clock tower 35 ft high. Powerdriven globe and
	armillary sphere. Latter had a sighting tube.
11th C	Arabs, decimal fractions from Indians, transmission to Jewish and
	Latin scholars in 12th C.
11th C	Length of year known to Mayas Incas and Indians as 365.2420
1103	Chinese sighting tube for altitude.
1114	Indian horizontal staff described by Bhaskara. Used by Muslims to measure depth of wells.
1120	Henry I, statute on standard yard. Hexagonal brass yard.
1137	Two Chinese maps carved in stone had grid to scale of 100 li.
1150	Jabir ibn Aflah probable inventor of Torquetum.
	Recording of star altitudes by finger width of outstretched arm.
1155	First printed Chinese map
1159	Arab cylindrical sundial
1180	Alexander Neckam described magnetic needle in De naturis rerum.
1198	Chinese Astronomer Royal severely punished for wrongly predicting solar eclipse by ½ day.
12th C	China. Timekeeping by metal incense clock, burning point of powder
	winding through labyrinth of characters.
12th C	Determination of diameter and circumference of a circular walled city from afar.
1200	Venetian glass makers developed art of lens making.
1205	Seven day week introduced in China.
1220	Fibonacci analytical geometry in Europe.
1229	Translation of Arab writings on astronomy.
1232	Floating compass needle used in Persia.
1247	Chinese planisphere engraved in stone.
1250	Alfonsine tables of planets
1258	Nasir al-Din al-Tusi first Director of Observatory at Maragha.
	Al-Tusi 12 ft wooden mural quadrant with sights, copper limb to degrees.
1269	Peregrinus described azimuthal dial with alidade and compass.
1274	Zero number in Chinese computations.
1276	Chinese gnomon 40 ft high in brick tower at Yang-chheng, 120 ft shadow scale and waterchannel for level control.
1276	Torquetum by Kuo-Shou-Ching in Peking.
1279	Kuo Shou-Ching’s observatory at Peking.
1285	Spina and Armati invented spectacles.
13th C	Bacon studied properties of mirrors and plano convex lenses.
13th C	Al-Urdi al-Dimashqi improved ancient Indian circles method for Azimuth fixes.
13th C	al-Marrekushi’s 134 geog coords froim astrofixes.
13th C	Bowl compass in Chinese waters for navigation.
13th C	Seismograph at Maraghah Observatory
13th C	to 17th C England. Open field system. Unit length, reach of a barge pole.
13th C	Jacob staff by Levi ben Gershon.
13th C	Decimal point by Yang Hui.
1300	Chu Ssu-Pen atlas of China.
1305	Edward I, unit of length 1 inch of 3 grains of barley.
1306	Grid map of Palestine. by Sanuto.
1311	Portolan charts with rectangular grids by Pietro.
1335	Gough map of England with 3 different miles- 2230 yard in England; 2250 yard in Wales;’ 2800 yard in Cheshire.
1350	Gough’s Itinerary map of Gt Britain.
	Relief map of Gibraltar by Ibn Battutah
1370	Oresme used terms longitudo, latitudo.
14th C	Chinese road alignments by compass.
14th C	First European mechanical astronomical clocks.
1416	Henry the Navigator founded School of Navigation in Sagres.
1421	Polish topographical map.
1437	Ulug Beg Star Almanac. Had quadrant 180 ft high for star obs.
1440	Gutenberg invented letterpress. Maps mainly cut in wood.
1462	Sea quadrant by de Cintra.
1471	Diaz rounded Cape of Good Hope.
1472	Ivan the Terrible established unique library under the Kremlin.
1473	Zacuto published perpetual almanac in Hebrew.
1477	Intaglio printing by Durer.
1492	Behaim’s Nurnberg globe with prime meridian 2º W of Canary Is.
1493	Pope Alexander VI divided map of world in two by meridian in mid Atlantic.
1493	Columbus discovered discrepancy between Flemish and Italian compasses.
1496	Bronze rod yard standard in Britain.
1497	Vasco da Gama sailed to India.
15th C	Purbach geometric square . Tables of sines and tangents.
15th C	de Cusa supported heliocentric theory and diurnal rotation of earth.
15th C	L da Vinci – Visible masses on the earth’s surface are in equilibrium.
1500	Organum viatorum. Pocket size combination of compass + sundial
1507	Copernicus wrote De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.
1508	Portable clock in Europe
1512	Waldseemuller’s polimetrum for bearings and altitudes.
1512	Evidence of nautical cartography in Java
1513	Piri Rei of Turkey, sea chart of Atlantic with American Coast.
1523	Fitzherbert. First book on surveying; Boke of Surveyinge.
1524	Tartaglia box compass with altitude on circular graduated board.
1525	French topographical maps by Fine and Coline
1525	Russian topographic maps made by invited foreigners.
1525	Guillen combined gnomon and compass for variations in magnetic declination.
1525	Fernel measured distance Paris-Amiens by carriage wheel.
1528	Topographic maps in Russia and Poland by Wapowski.
1530	Term chronometer suggested by Frisius.
1530	Agricola wrote De re metallica on mine surveying
1530	Arsenius added a compass to an astrolabe.
1533	Frisius wrote on triangulation.
1534	Frisius portable equatorial armillary sphere.
1537	de Benese wrote The Boke of Measuringe Lande.
	Distance by wooden rod of 1 perch = 5½ yards long.
1537	Nunez designed the nonius for reading quadrants.
1540	Quality woodcut map of Bavaria by Apian.
1541	Box compass by Neudorfer
1542	Differential quadrant by Rotz for navigation. Simul: det: lat and Az.
1542	Hartmann discovered inclination of magnetic needle.
1545	Marine Jacob’s staff by de Medina
1546	Tartaglia reported on survey methods in Italy.
1546	Brahe designed 19 ft quadrant for his Danish observatory.
1546	Mercator recognised existence of magnetic poles.
1547	Ryff improvement of theodolite
1550	De Roja’s book on astrolabium published.
1551	Foulon with plane table plus holometre.
1551	Munster designed trigonus- three straight rods in triangle vide triquetum
1554	Mohit used Jacob staff with various sliding plates for star altitudes.
1556	King Akbar decreed 25 Indus inch = 1 gaz (= the Ilahi gaz or Akbar yard)
1556	Digges Tectonicon
1557	Modern = sign by Recorde
1559	Cunningham described triangulation
1564	Bartoli different design of polimetrum
1569	Mercator true bearing chart for navigators.
1569	Rheticus taught proper survey control for mapping.
1570	World map by Ortelius
1571	Theodolitus by Digges. Also the instrument topographicall
1571	Torquetum by Regiomontanus
1571	Kepler succeeded Brahe in Prague.
1574	Gutmann wrote Felsmessen,gewiss.richtig und kurz gestellt. (On proper
	survey methods).
1574	Reinhold similar book to Gutmann. Preferred a wire to hemp cord for distance.
1579	Brahe connected Denmark and Sweden via Oresund.
1579	Saxton’s English county maps with triangulation control
1581	Galilei observed swinging chandelier
1583	Ricci world map with flattened sphere projection.
1585	Decimal arithmetic introduced by Stevin.
1587	Sea charts by Mercator son Rumold.
1588	Q Elizabeth I St. yard of 36 inch = 3 ft…….1760 yds to mile
1590	First Italian telescope by Porta.
1593	Chinese reel of measuring tape similar to modern
1594	Hulsius elaborate quadrant with compass sundial
1594	Praetorius ball and socket head for plane table tripod.
1594	Errard de Bar-le-Duc telemetre
1594	Werner’s Jakob staff 7 ft long with 2000 divisions for angle measure
1595	Davis back staff for use at sea.
1597	French astrolabe – graphometre by Danfrie.
1598	de Subermille designed Henry metre- a combination of rods.
1598	Pfintzing surveyors carriage with dial recording hodometer
16th C	Hommel (1518-1562) Leipzig, promoted surveying.
16th C	Seven European astro instruments with 360º divs. reached China via Persia.
16th C	Leonard and Thomas Digges experimented with telescope making.
1600		Decimal division. 1 chain = 100 links
		Germany. Miner’s Lachter-Kette or brass chain was 8-12 m long.
1600		X sign introduced by Viete
1600		Pitiscus published his Trigonometriae
1600		Clavius wrote Operum Mathematicorum.
1605		Topographic map of Japan.
1606		Snellius described compass declination of 11º 15′
1607		First 6 of the 15 books of Euclid translated into Chinese by Ricci.
1607		Logarithms by Burgi.
1608		Dutch trunks (telescopes) by Lippershey.
1609		First two of Kepler’s Laws published.
1610		Kepler’s astronomical telescope for surveyors. Huygens refined lens making.
1610		Galilei observed Jupiter with 30X telescope. His sector for computations.
1610		French toise marked by iron rod in foot of stairs of Le Chatelet.
1612		Word telescope used by Lagalla but ascribed to Demisiani
1612		Harriot went as surveyor to Virginia.
1612		Scheiner’s helioscope.
1612		Dou’s Holland circle made in Amsterdam. It had a cross swivel joint tripod.
1612		Word telescope used by Lagalla.
1614		Napier’s addit. logs and natural functions.
1615		Snellius introduced base extension and resection into triangulation.
		Used large 4 or 5 ft diam copper quadrant with transversal to 1′.
1615		Kepler’s Doliometria described vol. calculations by prismoidal rule.
1615		Dias in China mentioned telescope in his Explanation of the Celestial Sphere.
1616		Rathborne’s The Surveyor. Described theodelite, playne table, circumferentor.
1617		Napier’s bones.
1618		First telescope arrived in China.
1619		Third law of Kepler published.
1620		Introduction of slide rule
1621		Snellius’ sine law of refraction
1622		Oughtred invented straight log. slide rule.
1624		Briggs logs to base 10
1624		Log slide rule by Gunter
1624		Gunter’s Description and Use of the Sector… published.
1626		Chinese book on telescopes.
1627		Wingate’s straight edge slide rule. Two scales.
1630		Bleau alleged to have measured base between Maas and Texel.
1630		Algebraic geometry by Gethaldi.
1631		Vernier designed.
1632		Oughtred described a circular slide rule.
1633		Norwood’s measure London to York by chain. What else?
1636		Mersenne’s reflecting telescope.
1637		Descartes work on lenses.
1637		Descartes cartesian analytical geometry and integral exponents.
1638		Telescopes fitted with cross hairs of silk by Gascoigne.
1639		Gascoigne’s movable hair in telescope. Hence gradienter method.
1640		Gascoigne’s knife edge eyepiece micrometer.
1640		Adding machine suggested by Ciermans. (Scierman)
1640		Theory of numbers and analytical geometry by Fermat.
1640		Leibniz coined terms abscissa and ordinata.
1642		Pascal’s adding machine.
1642		Torricelli had idea of mercury barometer
1643		Viviani experimented on making a vacuum.
1644		Mersenne observed free fall acc due to gravity by pendulum
1645		Riccioli & Grimaldi arc measure Mt Serra-Paderno-Modena. Unreliable.
1647		Hevelius’ 150 ft long telescope. Pub. Selenographia and Machinae coelestis
1648		Pascal’s Lunar tables.
1648		Pascal taught use of barometer for height difference with Torricelli barometer
1650		Divini and Campani made long focus object glasses.
1650		De La Hire suggested engraving cross hairs by diamond.
1650		Gilbert considered earth as a large magnet.
1650		First use of logs in China.
1650		Partridge modern slide rule with movable centrepiece.
1653		Improvement of level by Strumienski of Cracow
1653		Claramontius improved level.
1653		Leybourn published his The Compleat Surveyor. Went to 5 Edns by 1722
1654		Barometric measures demonstrated to the Regensburg Reichstag.
1654		Jakob Bernouilli started his work on catenary, loxodrome, spirals etc
1657		Huygens grandfather clock.
1658		Atwell published his The Faithful Surveyor.
1658		Hooke’s spiral spring for pocket watches.
1659		Huygens and Hooke micrometer designs. Intro of virgula = tapered metal bar and hair micrometer
1660		Italian level with floating gunsights by Schoff
1660		Division sign introduced
1660		Tilas of Sweden- mining compass
1660		Picard – semi-automatic levels. One with telescope and water level container other with plumb bob forcing telescope into horizontal position.
1660		Chinese obtained slide rule from Europe.
1660		Mouton suggested an unalterable universal measure for the metre.
1661		Thevonet invented spirit bubble.
1662		Van Breen (Holland) improved nautical staff with coloured observer’s glass
1662		Reticule micrometer with several silver wires by Malvasia.
1663		Gregory – two mirror combination for reflecting telescope proposed
1665		Newton postulated earth as oblate spheroid.
1666		Newton clarified distinction between spherical and chromatic aberration.
1666		Foundation of Academie des Sciences, Paris.
1666		Auzout filar micrometer.
1667		Praetorius wrote on diving rods in Gazophylaci gaudium.
1667		to 1670. Picard, Auzout and Romer established precision astronomy.
1667		Godunov’s first map of Siberia
1668		Hooke’s shortened telescope and lens grinding machine.
1668		Newton’s reflecting telescope.
1669		Riccioli and Picard observed free fall acc due to gravity by pendulum
1669		Chains in use- Rathborne 1 perch = 100 links; Gunter 4 perches or poles = 100 links
1669		Verbiest reequippoed Peking astronomical observatory.
1669		to 70. Picard determined arc from Amiens to Malvoisin
		His quadrant used on arc was 10 ft radius with telescopic sights and cross hairs
1670		and on. Newton and law of gravitation.
1670		Differential calculus by Leibniz, Briggs, Napier and Newton
1670		to 90. Observatories built in Paris, Greenwich and Berlin.
1670		Hooke suggested clockwork driven telescope.
1670		Mouton proposed a linear scale based on a geodetic minute.
1671		Picard suggested a Universal Foot as function of sec pendulum
1672		Cassegrain suggested reflecting telescope
1672		to 1695. Leibniz Staffelwalzenmachine for multiplication and tens transmission
1672		Richer in Cayenne observed parallax to Mars
		Noticed that his pendulum had to be shortened at Cayenne to keep time.
1672		G D Cassini I determined distance earth-sun.
1673		Hooke and Hevelius compared merits of gunsights with telescope pointing.
1673		Loevenhoek showed great skill in lens grinding.
1674		Montanari used stadia method for distance.
1677		Foster in Boston USA First American map in woodcut.
1677		Flamsteed equatorial sextant. Wrote Historia Coelestis.
1682		Pendulum observations by Halley, Varin, Deshayes, de Glos and Goree.
1683		Seki Kowa wrote on determinants.
1683		Cassini I extended Picard’s arc north to Dunkirk
1683		Cassini II wrote on barometric levelling.
1684		Romer’s transit instrument at Copenhagen.
1686		Halley deduced crude relation for pressure v height
1686		to 1743 Maharajah Jai Sing set up over 40 astro. instruments in various cities.
1687		Hooke suggested a Pole finding telescope with concentric circles.
1687		Newton wrote Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica.
1688		Chinese scholar gave details of ancient Chinese standards of length.
1693		Leibniz wrote on determinants
1697		Contour lines introduced by Ancelin, Rotterdam
17 C		Leybourn published method of closing traverses.
17 C		Beginning of modern Geodesy
17 C		Jesuits arrived in China.They had a cosmos of the closed Ptolemaic-Aristotelian geocentric universe of solid concentric crystalline spheres. This opposed the doctrine of the floating of heavenly bodies of Hsuan-Yeh.
17 C		Roman Catholic & Protestant clergy supplied “all round” geodesists to Europe.
		eg Cusa, Copernicus, Picard, Boscovich, Bohnenburger.
1700		La Hire began extension of Picard arc to the south.
		It reached Colliure by 1716 or 18. gave prolate figure !! See entry p 46
1700		Halley’s charts of magnetic declination across continents and oceans.
1700		Newton designed first octant. He wrote on ancient metrology.
1702		Leibniz had idea of using elastic deformation of metal for pressure measure.
1702		Antoine Thomas arc measure in China. See entry p 46
1702		Mallet described spirit levels.
1704		Romer’s meridian circle.
1704		Le Blon experimented on colour effects in printing.
1705		Sherwin 7 figure log tables.
1707		to 1717. Complete resurvey of China by Jesuits.
1707		Euler started teaching in Basel, Petersburg and then Berlin.
1708		to 12. Hooke and Flamsteed used van Breen’s ideas on the quadrant.
1709		Bion described octagonal surveyor’s cross for 45º and 90º horz. angles.
1710		Peter the Great (Russia) ordered linear scale (fuss) supposedly equivalent
		to ancient Chinese foot, to be made equal to English foot.
1713		Bernouill binomial distribution.
1714		Board of Longitude offered £20000 for solution to longitude.
1720		Halley succeeded Flamsteed as Director Greenwich Observatory
1720		Cassini proposed a geodetic ft = 1 terrestrial minute of arc
1721		Hadley reflecting telescope 200X Mag 6 ft long
1723		La Hire. Level instrument with floating gun sights.
1724		Burgh (Dublin) used double meridian distance to compute areas.
1725		New observatory in Japan. Accepted Copernican system.
1726		Petersburg Acad.Sc.founded by Peter the Great.
1727		Bradley aberration of stars idea conceived.
1730		Sisson making theodolites with micrometers.
1731		Godfrey’s sea quadrant. (USA)
1732		Hadley’s octant reading to 1 min arc.
1732		George Washington born
1733		De Moivre’s normal distribution.
1733		Herschel introduced reflecting telescope used in today’s 1″ theodolites.
1733		Cassini began parallel arc measure St Malo to Strasbourg.
1734		Publication of first Russian Atlas.
1735		Start of Peru arc expedition. Used Toise de Perou.
1735		La Condamine observed free fall acc due to gravity by pendulum
1735		to 7 La Condamine, Godin and Bouguer found length equat: secs pendulum
1735		Invariable pendulum by Mairan used by Maupertuis at Pello 1736
1735-42		French arc by Maupertuis in Lapland. See p 50 for details
1736		Bouguer at foot of Chimborazo to experiment of deflection of vertical.
1736		Six Roman linear standards on tablet in Rome measured by Folkes of Roy.Soc.
1737		De L’isle measured base on ice Petersburg to Cronstadt.
1737		Clairaut, Maclaurin proved Newton’s law of gravitation.
1737		Clairaut proved Newton’s hypothesis of oblate earth.
1737		Leigh – sextant with artificial fluid horizon
1738		French Acad. announced that Cassini prolate earth had been rejected.
1739		to 40. C F Cassini III, and Lacaille repeated earlier Cassini II arc measure.
1739		to 40. Cassini and LaCaille resurveyed Picard arc and added 5 bases.
1740		Age of scientific instrument makers began with Langlois
1740		Celcius discovered short period variations of magnetic declinations.
		His temperature scale used.
1742		Bradley succeeded Halley as Director Greenwich Observatory.
1742		Roy.Soc.organised manufacture of Yard measure based on Elizabeth’s of 1588
1742		Results from Peru expedition- oblate earth.
1743		Clairaut published Theorie de la Figure de la terre. See p 52
1743		pendulum.
1744		Cassini de Thury IV began Carte topographique de la France
1744		to 99. Triangulation linking Greenwich and Paris.
1745		C F Cassini’s (III) transversal cylindrical projection.
1747		Murdoch Mackenzie’s hydrographic surveys of Orkneys.
1747		to 1803. Survey of British Isles.
1747		La Condamine proposed length equatorial secs pendulum as standard.
1748		Bradley described nutation.
1749		Faye found free air reduction of g.
1749		D’Alembert proved Bradley theory of precession
1750		La Caille catalogued 10 000 stars at Capetown in two years.
1750		to 69. Arc measure of Liesganig, Varasdin-Brno.
1750		Meridian arc Rome – Rimini by Boscovich and Meyer.
1750		Stuart and Revett measured Parthenon.
1750		Chezy internal grinding of spirit level vials.
1750		Naime, London. Manufacturing barometers, thermometers etc
1750		Boscovich compensation theory of crustal masses.
1751		to 1753. La Caille arc in S Africa.
1757		Marine chart of English Channel by Buache (France) Or 1737. See R107p141
1758		Bird made a standard for Parliamentary committee
1758		Cook charted St Lawrence river.
1758		Breithaupt – hanging theodolite.
1759		to 60. Beccaria arc in Piemont near Turin.
1759		Chinese azimuth compass in gimbal mounting for use at sea.
1761		Cassini III began parallel arc Brest to Vienna
1762		Ramsden opened workshop in London.
1763		Harrison and Leroy. First ship chronometer.
1764		Brander theodolite maker.
1764		Osterwald used a wooden bridge to support measuring rods on Bavarian base
1764		to 68. Mason-Dixon arc measure. Wooden box-type rods
1765		Meyer’s widow received payment for his lunar tables.
1766		Louis XIV edict on Toise de Perou.
1767		Bird wrote The Method of Dividing Astronomical Instruments.
1767		Maskelyne- first nautical almanac
1769		Transit of Venus.
1770		to 83. Guinand (Swiss) worked on improving flint glass.
1770		Mayer suggested to Ramsden using his dividing engine for full circles
1770		Hahn (G) -first reliable and durable calculating machines, different sizes.
1770		Mining Academies established Berlin, Pribram (CZ), Sopron (Hun), Petersburg
1771		Watts stadia tacheometry
1772		Lambert’s conic projection
1772		Radcliffe observatory founded in Oxford. Since 1948 has been in S Africa
1773		Adams artificial horizon for sextant.
1774		Maskelyne and Hutton plummet method for g, Mt Schehallien.
1774		Harrison finally got his reward for chronometer.
1775		to 77. Ramsden constructed dividing engine.
1775		Mining Acad. established in Clausthal inHasrz Mts.
1775		to 83. Introduction of 4 screw theods in USA
1778		Green inserted a micrometer in the eyepiece
1780		French weavers used punch cards. Jacquard of Lyons
1782		Troughton Bros took over Rowley old shop.
1783		Muller calculator
1783		Roy began triangulation in England.
1784		Roy base on Hounslow Heath with glass rods.
1784		Prony produced 17 vols of Tables du Cadastre with logs nat. figs to 14 decs. 1 – 200 000. Used centesimal angular division.
1785		Theodolite by Ramsden
1785		Boscovich observed free fall acc due to gravity by pendulum
1785		Borda’s repeating circle with two telescopes.
1785		Remeasure Hounslow base by Williams, Mudge andDalby.
1785		Rittenhouse used spider webs as cross hairs
1787		Ramsden made 3 ft diameter circle to 1 sec by micrometer.
		His direction theodolite
1787		French instrument makers (Fortin etc) formed a corporation.
1787		Channel crossing by triangulation. Roy, Cassini,Legendre and Mechain
1787		Legendre’s solution of fundamental geodetic triangle computation
1789		Sir John R Miller raised the decimal question in House of Commons.
1790		400g to circle introduced in France, S Germany and Switzerland.
1790		French repetition theodolite
1790		Cary apprentice under Ramsden.
1790		Metric committee in France. Borda, Condorcet,Lagrange, Laplace,Monge
1790		Borda et al expressed planetary distances in earth radii; need for R value
		Suggested quadrant as 10 000 000 m
1790		Barrow meridian arc lat 23º 18′
1790		Talleyrand proposed length of secs. pendulum as a unit of length.
1791		Fr. Decimal Committee recommended 1/10M of quadrant as a metre.
1791		Longitude and horary graphs for mariners.
1791		Borda and Cassini IV pendulum obs at Paris Observatory.
1791		First contour maps in France.
1791		French baselines by 30 ft firwood rods.
1791		to 99 Br Admiralty Hydrographer, Hurd, charted Bermuda.
1791		OS of Great Britain founded.
1792		Sawitch flattening from pendulum obs.
1792		to 99 Delambre and Mechain arc in France as part solution to metre value.
1792		22 September. French Republic established.
1793		Third Report by Decimal Committee. 1 prov. m = 443.44 P Lines.
1794		Vega, Nautical Almanac, also log. slide rule replacing Galilei sector.
1795		Metric system legalised in France.
1796		Czar Paul instituted the Dépot of Maps.
1797		Dallabella,Lisbon, inverse square law of magnetic force.
1798		Cavendish determined earth density. His torsion balance.
1798		Napoleon’s officers discovered the nilometer on Elephant Is in the Nile.
1798		Mechain & Delambre submitted their results.
1799		Prototype legal metre in France.
1799		Delambre published Methodes analytiques pour la determination ….meridien.
18 C		English scientists used French pied du roi of 144 Paris lines (=325 mm).
18 C		Horrebow-Talcott latitude method.
c1800		Lehmann (1765-1811) put shape of hachures on a mathematical basis.
1800		Munich becoming centre of continental instrument making.
1800		Senefelder introduced flatbed on stone block and offset printing
1801		Depot General de la Guerre began production of Carte de la Baviere.
1801		Paris parallel arc begun. Strassburg-Munich.
1801		Svanberg reobserved Lapland arc of Maupertuis.
1802		Flinders hydrographic surveys of Gulf of Carpenteria.
1802		Laplace proved Mayer correct (1765) and added term to moon latitude equation.
		Hence reversed process and found earth flattening.
1802		to3 Laplace derivation of pressure-height relationship.
1802		von Zach & von Muffling baseline for Thuringian triag. near Gotha.
		Terminal points as cannons set vertically. First used by Roy in 1791
1802		to 1822. Triangulation began in India.
1804		Repetition theodolite by Reichenbach.
1804		Sacharof and Robertson balloon ascent from St Petersburg.
1804		Mechain proposed extension of French arc to Balearic Is.
1804		Mechain died in despair at errors in astro. lat of Barcelona. See p 60
1804		to 1811. Lambton parallel arc through Madras
1805		Legendre applied least squares to French arc of 1792. See p 60
1805		Senefelder invented zincography
1806		Legendre- length of a geodesic.
1806		to 08. Biot and Arago extended French arc to Formentera on Balearic Is.
		Arago wrote about it in his Historie de ma jeunesse.
1806		Illig. In papermaking, replaced animal glue by resin or alum.
1807		Hassler founded US Coast & Geodetic Survey.
1807		Arago suggested use of sound to measure depths.
1808		Gauss astrolabe. Simultaneous determination of lat. and long.
1808		to 25. Biot, Mathieu, theory of mathematical pendulum.
1810		Soldner replaced plane rect. coords. by spherical rect. coords.
1810		Senefelder invented transfer printing.
1810		Review of French arc measures revealed short comings.
		Napoleon refused permission to re survey Lapland arc.
1811		Mechanical press by Konig.
1811		Laplace induced French to survey parallel arc of Marennes to Fiume (Istria)
		Interrupted by war of 1813-14.
1811		Bohnenberger suggested an inverted (reversible) pendulum
1812		French troops noticed an English built transit in Moscow and saved it
		from the big fire lit by Russians in self defence.
1812		Pond catalogue of polar distances of 43 stars.
1814		Stern calculator
1814		First survey ships on British Navy list
1814		Planimeter by Herman.
1815		Triangulation in Italy.
1816		Start of Struve triangulation.
1816		to 17. First US baseline by Hassler at Tinively Valley.
		Second base on Long Island.
1817		Struve initiated his meridian arc
1817		Kater reversible pendulum. Suggested by Prony 1792 & Bohnenberger 1811
1818		Laplace published Theorie analytique des probabilités
1818		Brousseaud & Nicollet observed Brest to Strasbourg on parallel of Paris.
1819		Bohnenberger gyroscopic theory and construction of his precession machine.
1819		Young’s modulus of elasticity
1820		Fraunhofer engraved cross hairs by diamond.
1820		Thomas (F) Arithmometer
1820		Struve baseline near Dorpat.
1820		Schumacher baseline in Holstein
1820		Gauss used heliotrope on Hanover arc.
1820		to 24; and 1838-53. Complete triangulation of Great Britain.
1820		Topographic survey began in Russia under Schubert
1821		Carline and Plana recomputed Beccaria’s arc.
1821		Carlini deflection of plumb line at Mt Cenis
1821		Gauss triangulation and arc measure adjusted by least squares.
1821		to 22. Carlini and Plana filled gap between Alps and Turin in arc of Marennes.
		Rockets or powder signals for simult. obs. for longitudes.
1822		Babbage Difference machine.
1822		Fitzroy on Beagle in Sydney to determine longitude of Parramatta Obsy.
1822		Parramatta observatory established by Sir Thomas Brisbane.
1822		Memphis cubit rod (pre Rameses I) found at Jomar.
1823		Bonne baseline at Brest for parallel arc
1823		to 28. 30 000 miles of African coast charted by Owen.
1824		First standard yard reached Sydney
1825		Bessel refined Kater pendulum
1825		Parallel arc Munich to Budapest
1825		India confirmed the 1556 Akbar yard of 33 E Inch = 25 Indus inch
		= the Indian yard.
1826		OS of Ireland begun by Colby.
1826		Drummond invented heliostat and limelight.
1826		Troughton and Simms partnership in instrument making.
1826		Niepce photoengraving = photo intaglio
1826		Oldendorps planimeter
1827		Colby surveys
1827		Babinet suggested light wave as natural unit of length
1827		math. figure of earth in terms of geometric measurements.
1828		Schmidt compuation of Hannover triangulation. To Gauss instructions.
1828		Bohnenberger used spherical coordinates.
1828		to 32. Map of nineteen counties by Thomas Mitchell, Australia
1828		Ramsden 10 ft rod arrived in Sydney to standardise chains.
1829		Cooke began instrument making career
1829		Russian triangulation connected to Konigsberg observatory. Hence parallel arc England-France-Prussia-Russia.
1830		Prussia took lead in geodesy from S Germany.
		Foundation of Trigonometrische Abteilung des Preuss.
1831		to 41. Bessel triangulation in E Prussia.
1832		to 33. Henderson further meridian arc obs. CapeTown.
		Related computations by Olufsen, Breen and Stone.
1832		Everest baseline at Calcutta using Colby apparatus.
1832		Hengler horizontal pendulum for deflection of plumbline.
1833		Poisson work on seismic waves.
1833		Stokes formula for distance between geoid and spheroid.
1834		Jacobi triaxial ellipsoid. Followed by Clarke and Schubert.
1834		Baeyer and Bessel on Prussian oblique arc. Base at Trenk
1834		to 48. Babbage analytical engine.
1835		Gauss and Weber fundamental study of geomagnetism
1836		Mayer idea tpo determine eccentricty of ellipsoid by triang. of skew meridian
1837		Poisson distribution. See p 48 for other names.
1838		First astronomical observatory in USA at Williamstown.
1839		Daguerre-Niepce reproduction of pictures by photographic emulsion.
1839		Bessel toise.
1840		Bessel spheroidal formulae
1840		Blondat rubber hose over 50 m for hydrostatic levelling
1840		Weisbach triangle in mine surveying
1840		Everest theodolite, Indian subtense bar.
1840		Precise traversing heads for mine survey by Breithaupt Kassel
1840		to 80. S Australian triangulation included 7 bases. see Frome on Surveying.
1841		Talbot developed photographic negative
1841		Puissant discovered error of 68t in distance Formentera-Montjouy
1841		to 78. Great Lakes triangulation USA suffered from bad base. (Sacle)
1841		Everest base at Bidar by Colby bars.
1842		J F Herschel discovered method of sun printing in blue
1842		Ertel level with stadia hairs and horizontal circle
1843		Chesterman cloth tape reinforced by wire.
1843		Sumner, USA used position lines
1844		Struve obtained permission to extend his arc to Tornea
1844		Belgian triangulation using broken ray technique.
1844		Chambers log tables
1845		Staffel of Warsaw. Calculator
1845		Stampfer discussed precision of pointing in relation to target shape
1846		to1902. USCGS arc measures
1847		to 56. Parallel arc Astrachan-Kishinev
1848		to 56. Brest-Tchernowitz parallel arc observed. Extended to 20º by Wrochenko.
1848		Many Laplace stns around Moscow by Schweizer.
1848		Maclear remeasure of La Caille arc in S Africa.
1848		Roche density of the earth
1849		Maurel & Jayet (F) calculator
1849		Kellner compound eyepiece.
1849		Stokes on variation of gravity at surface of earth
1849		Laussedat architectural photographs for measurements.
1850		Vidie, Bourdon and Schinz independently invented metal capsule barometer
1850		Foucault pendulum used to prove rotation of earth.
1850		Reichenbach perfected his stadia hair method
1850		-51. Le Gray and Archer. Photographic plates
1851		Airy transit circle installed at Greenwich
1852		Struve arc extended by Tenner towards Murmansk and Danube estuary.
1852		Stampfer optical plumbing in mines.
1853		Oppert found Assyrian ft standard at Babylon to be 329 mm for 30 shusi
1853		Porro anallactic lens
1853		-58. Porro, Koppe & Meydenbaur developed principles of photogrammetry.
1854		Amsler polar planimeter
1854		Airyu flotation theory of earth crust.
1855		Alum lithoplates by Poitevin
1855		Balloon photography in Paris by Nadar alias Tournachon
		and in Boston, USA and Solferino, Italy
1855		Pratt observed deflection of plumbline in Himalayas.
1855		Levelling used to determine settlement for first time. Near Stuttgart.
1856		Stokes theory of physical pendulum
1857		Parallel arc from Valencia (Eire) to Orsk suggested by Struve
1858		Error or standard ellipse by Andrae.
1858		Anaglyphic stereoscopic viewing by d’Almada
1858		-59. Bertaud objective + Brunner camera box + theodolite for contours by photo.
1859		to 77.Spanish triangulation. Connected to N Africa at Laghouat, Algiers
1859		Schubert computed tri-axial ellipsoid
1859		Eckholdt omnimeter measured a tangent ratio by screw.
1859		Amsler reversible level.
1860		Hayford clarified concepts of isostasy.
1860		Triangulation England-France. Clarke computed arc and again in 1866 and 1880
1860		Base in Victoria, Australia 5½ miles long. Took 9 months
1860		in 1876-7. On to Tunisia in 1884-5
1860		-80. Andrae, Sonderhof & Helmert discussed lateral refraction.
1860		Sir Wm Thompson (Lord Kelvin) pressure tube for water depths.
1861		Bessel ideas on reversible pendulum constructed by Lohmeier of Hamburg.
1861		Norwegian geodetic commission formed
1861		Gen Baeyer plan of international cooperation in geodesy. Became IUGG
1861		-72. Central European parallel arc from Haverford to Orsk.
1861		Third connection England-France. Others 1787 and 1822
1863		Kelvin theory of tides of earth crust.
1863		Hoskold put plane mirror in front of theodolite for optical plumbing.
1864		First meeting of IUGG
1864		Baselines at terminals of Norwegian Trig. Christiana and Rinderleret.
1865		Italian geodetic commission formed.
1865		Precise levelling in Saxony by Nagel and Prussia and Bavaria in 1867
1865		Pujo fundamentals of photogrammetry
1866		Villarceau general formula of Laplace equation.
1866		Clarke computed triaxial ellipsoid
1866		Hydrographic Office of U S Navy formed.
1866		Von Wullerstorf idea of aneroid for relative gravimetry.
1867		Spain, Portugal and Russia join IUGG
1867		Precise levelling with Breithaupt instruments in Berlin.
1868		New S Wales. Baselines at Lake George and Richmond.
1868		Helmert worked on error ellipse
1868		Villarceau and Bruns computations of geoid.
1868		Creation of Prussian Geodetic Institute in Berlin.
1869		Zollner horizontal pendulum
1869		-70. Viertel, theodolite + eccentric telescope set vertical by autocollimation.
1870		Helmert became Director of Zentral Bureau der Int. Erdmessung in Berlin.
1870		Gauss five figure log tables.
1870		-88. Revision of French arc Perpignan-Melun. Used Brunner theodolites.
1871		Maddox photogelatine printing, dry plates.
1871		Jordan optical plummet by refracting line of sight from 45 deg. mirror.
1871		Brunner baseline equipment for European work
1871		-98. Arc measure on 39th parallel in USA from Atlantic to Pacific
		Ten baselines
1871		Thin, 66 ft, tape of crinoline steel introduced in Australia.
1872		Barrel type calculating machine with toothed wheel. By Baldwin, USA
1872		Schreiber test of circle graduations
1873		Nagel designed and constructed theodolite for optical plumbing.
1873		Jordan, Finsterwalder mapping from photographs.
1873		Colour photography by Vogel, Clark Ducos du Hauron. After idea by Maxwell 1857
1873		Listing introduced tem Geoid
1873		Todhunter book on History of Theory… published.
1873		10 Laplace stations in Harz mountains.
1874		Transit of Venus in NSW
1874		Hansen testing line scales.
1874		New International metre standard deposited at Paris.
1875		Marc St Hilaire dead reckoning for position lines.
1875		18 countries sign Treaty in Paris to establish Int.Bur.of Wts and Measures
1875		Helmert method of accuracy of graduation of horizontal circles.
1875		Peirce, USA determined vibration (or flexure) of pendulum support.
1876		Algiers parallel reached Kap Bon and Sicily
1876		Helmert defined line of sight in telescopes
1876		Zacharie (Denmark) rectangular spherical computations.
1876		Lord Kelvin harmonic analyser for tidal prediction.
1877		Photogravure printing
1878		Ohdner calculating machine.
1878		Couturier reflection level with suspended telescope.
1879		Ibanez and Perrier observed quad across Mediterranean to join French arc to N African parallel.
1879		German level datum in Berlin connected to Amsterdam gauge.
1879		Geoid map of Central Asia by Fergana
1880		Nagel-Hildebrand optical plummet on interchangeable traverse heads.
1880		Forster, Eggert, Broun, increase of visual acuity by coincidence method
1880		Hollerith punch cards with electrical switch feeler
1880		Von Sterneck pendulum with coincidence apparatus.
1880		Term nomograph coined by D’Ocagne
1880		Jaderin introduced new baseline technique with thin steel wires.
1881		Mendenhall deflection of vertical at Mt Fujiyama
1881		Offset printing by Champenois
1882		Free swinging plumb bobs used in German shaft plumbing
1883		Harmonic analysis of tides by G H Darwin and J C Adams
1883		Longitude connection Singapore-Darwin-Sydney by Barrachi & Darwin
1883		First geoid maps of Harz by Andrae
1883		Fergola suggested Int. latitude service
1883		-91. Queensland triangulation
1884		Helmert dynamic correction
1884		Great Britain joined Metric Convention
1884		-90. Development of several types of camera including photo-theo.by Paganini
1885		Algiers parallel reached Tunisia
1885		Report from Berlin on 14 differing toise scales unsed in Europe Triangulation.
1886		Scholz worked on error ellipse
1887		Lallemand- orthometric correction
1887		-92. Michelson and later Benoit determined number of red waves in cadmium
		in one metre.
1888		Lorenzoni, Italy, determined vibration (or flexure) of pendulum support.
1888		Penrose measured the Parthenon in Athens.
1888		Introduction of terrestrial photogrammetry by Deville, Canada
1888		-96. Eotvos torsion balance for gravity components
1889		Bllee calculating machine
1889		Austrian, French and German officers mapped Greece.
1889		More countries join IUGG
1889		Barr and Stroud glass wedge for optical distance measurement.
1889		Dutton coined term isostasy
1889		-93. Various experiments with horizontal pendulum
1890		Rotogravure by Klie
1890		Algraphy= aluminium sheet printing by Scholz, Mullaly and Bullock (1891).
1890		Fennel, Kassel theodolite with in built optical plummet
1890		-03. Precise levelling Kronstadt – Black Sea -Sea of Azov
1890		-35. Triangulation Brest – Astrachan
1890		De Grousilliers suggested to Zeiss idea of stereophotogrammetry
1891		Chile, Peru covered with triangulation
1892		Brunsvega twin desk calculator
1892		French physicists introduce wavelength method to define the metre
1892		Pulfrich constructed a rangefinder with floating mark (of Stolze)
1892		-10. First geodetic levelling of Finland.
1893		Three colour process by Kurtz
1893		-98. Diagram tacheometer by Poncagli, Urbani and Hammer. Italy.
1894		Double image optical distance measurement. Richards USA
1894		Guilleaume suggested use of hypsometer with mercury barometer for g at sea
1895		First stereo plotter by Machand, Deville in Canada
1895		Relief printing mechanical press
1896		Guilleaume developed invar for survey tapes.
1896		Finsterwalder and Hugerhoff phototheodolite.
1896		Geoidal profiles computed in Berlin
1896		-03. Work of Scheimpflug on photogrammetry
1896		-06. Helmert experiment on fluctuation of equipotential surface.
1897		Russian Engineers used photos to locate railways near Chinese borders
1897		Act of Parliament in GR to legalise metric system
1898		Russian-Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen. Used Jaderin wires
1898		Hildebrand optical plummet for nadir and zenith plumbing
1898		-05. Four metre subtense bar used in German E Africa
1899		Austrian Marine obs of refraction at sea horizon
19 C		Turkey mapped by Austrian Military surveyors
19 C		Bulgaria mapped by Russian officers
c1900		1400 absolute gravity stations observed. Used to adjust Helmert formula
1900		Kites with combined cameras used in Moscow by Thiele.
1901		Geoid map of Switzerland by Messerschmitt
1901		Stereocomparator by Abbe, Pulfrich and Zeiss.
1902		Helmert work on spheroidal formulae
1902		Invar staves used for precise levelling in Europe.
1902		-06. Reobservation of Peru arc. See p 76.
1902		-09. Hayford ellipsoid. Also topo.-isostatic reduction formula.
1903		First geoid map of US East coast by USCGS
1903		Double point resection by Finsterwalder
1904		Albrecht test to determine long. diff. Potsdam-Brocken Mt by wireless
		in comparison with telegraphic transmission.
1904		Absolute gravity observed at Dehra Dun
1905		Rudski inversion method for reduction of masses above geoid
1905		Wild theodolite with microscope for both verniers next to telescope
1905		Bykow. Suggested level recording inst. using pendulum and rev. counter.
1905		-54. Triangulation Cape to Cairo. ie 30th meridian
1906		Photocomposing machine in lithography by Huebner
1906		Helmert method to find earth axes from trig and gravity obs.
1907		Stereoplotter by Thompson
1907		Schweydar theory of coeff of rigidity of earth.
1907		Wild.Coincidence setting of both verniers with microscope.
1908		Stereo autograph by von Orel of Vienna.
1908		Carl Zeiss Jena established geodetic instrument section
1908		-11. Triangulation in Fiji by Lee, Rimmer, McCaw
1909		Zeiss parallelogram by Bauersfeld
1909		Prismastrolabium by vonClaude & Driencourt.
1909		Pratt-Hayford isostatic system
1910		Hayford investigated mean ellipsoid from gravity data
1910		Zwicky tacheometer with two telescopes.
1910		Photographic cross-sections of tunnel profiles in Austria
1910		-13. Antarctic triangulation Ross Sea area by Debenham
1911		Further 2736 absolute garvity stations. Helmert forula readjusted 1915
1911		Hammer method of adjusting trilateration.
1911		Wilski double wire shaft plumbing.
1911		Wild’s Zeiss III precision level with parallel plate micrometer.
1912		Bowie working on isostasy
1912		Foundation of International Time Bureau in Paris. (BIH).
1912		Kruger method to transform conformal coords to adjacent zones
1912		-13. Wegener found large vertical refraction in Greenland
1912		-17. Bowie gravity obs in USA, Canada, India and Europe.
1912		-21. Second geodetic levelling of Great Britain
1913		Tardivo at Int. Cong. described aerial photog. from aeroplanes for mapping.
1914		Haussmann suggested a gyrotheodolite
1914		-18. Karolus, Mittelstadt & Huttel determined speed of light on geodetic base near Leipzig.
1917		Bowie published “Investigations of gravity and isostasy.
1919		IUGG formed. Germany only joined in 1956
1920		Karolus constructed modern Kerr cell as used in geodimeter.
1921		Astrolabe attachment for theodolite by Reeves.
1921		Stein found evidence of Indus inch inGobi desert.
1921		Wild founded own workshop in Heerbrugg
1922		Anschutz constructed first gyrotheodolite.
1922		Parana river crossing. Levels by simult. z.d.
1922		-27. Athanassiadis (Gk) suggested to link Crete with N Africa by flare
		triangulation with balloons
1923		Vening Meinesz working on isostasy
1923		Plane parallel plate for Vaisala interference comparator.
1923		Design of Wild T2 complete
1923		Vening Meinesz gravity obs in submarine
1924		Glass circles & optical micrometer designed by Wild, built by Zeiss.
1924		Zeiss-Bosshardt double-image tacheometer.
1924		Barometric lapse rate formula.
1924		Acceptance of Hayford ellipsoid as Int. Ellipsoid of IUGG
1924		Foundation of Baltic GeodeticCommission by Bonsdorff
1924		-38. Heiskanen observed over 2000 gravity stations.
1924		-38. Airy-Heiskanen isostatic system
1925		Launch of Wild T3
1925		Defant- tidal theory
1926		Research into vertical refraction by Geiger and Kukkamaki
1926		Heiskanen ellipsoid
1926		Astro levelling by Aguilar in Argentina.
1926		CTS 1″ theodolite
1927		Sun compass by Bumstead for polar flights.
1927		Coast to coast precise levelling in USA
1927		Somigliani derived major axis of geoid from gravity measures alone
1927		Differential analyser for use in digital computer By Bush, USA
1927		Experiments with echosounders by Behm (G)
1928		Triangulation of Alai-Pamir by Germans under Finsterwalder
1928		IAG first published International Bibliography.
1928		Static quartz gravimeter by Noergaard
1928		Empirical gravity formula by Heiskanen
1929		Deflection of dams by precise geodetic methods. Lang, Switzerland
1929		Vening-Meinesz three pendulum gravimeter for use at sea
1930		Somigliani and Cassini added theoretical term to to Heiskanen 1928 formula
1930		Holweck-Lejay astatic pendulum
1930		Lejay, S.J. director of Observatory Zi-Ka-Wei near Shanghai
1930		Gravimeters specifically for oil exploration. Truman, USA
1930		45º prismatic astrolabe by Baker.
1930		Pendulum astrolabe by Willis.
1930		Error analysis by Ljutz.
1930		Spring balance principle gravimeter
1930		-31. Wegener Greenland crossing. Used trig. levelling.
1931		Haalck gravimeter on barometric principle
1931		Heiskanen tables of isostatic reductions
1931		Hildebrand special optical plummet for shipbuilding.
1931		Gas pressure gravimeter
1931		-41. Vening-Meinesz modified Airy regional floating theory.
1931		Heiskanen definition of spheroidal earth. See p 83
		and also equilibrium earth.
1932		Photo.registration of horz. circle reading on theodolites. Berroth
1932		Bifilar gravimeter by Tomaschek
1933		Berroth established procedures for flare triangulation
1934		Triangulation of Nanga-Parbat
1934		Hirvonen used Stokes formula to recompute geoid.
1934		-35. Heye, Cooke absolute gravity in washington.
1935		N African parallel arc Nemours – Carthago and W to Casablanca.
1935		Echo sounder improved by Wood and others.
1935		Germany instructed Surveyors to switch to centesimal circle graduations
1935		Australian SArmy Svy Corp bought first metric tapes
1935		-55. Secoind Geodetic levelling of Finland by Kukkamaki et al.
1936		Int.Lat. Service moved to Naples from Kimura
1936		Hilger Watts 1″ microptic theodolite
1936		Three way optical plumb by Zeiss
1936		Norlund pioneered hydrostatic precise levelling
1936		-38. J S Clark NPL absolute gravity
1938		Charter for OS recommended metric grid.
1938		Plane parallel plate for precise level by Wild(Zeiss).
1938		Calibration od invar base wires by Vaisala interference comparator
1938		Cowle, USA had idea of adjustment by electrical analogue
1939		Graf, Berlin. static gravimeter
1939		Test of Berroth flare triangulation inGermany
1939		Automatic level compensator by Meissner
1941		Hinterkeuser error theory of flare triangulation
1941		Gulf underwater gravimeter
1942		Roelofs solar prism
1942		Krasovsky ellipsoid
1943		ICAN Standard Atmosphere for barometric levelling.
1944		HARVARD MARK 1 by Aiken. Electronic computer with punch tape.
1944		Underwater photogrammetry began in USA
1945		Multiplex radar controlled air photography.
1945		ENIAC by Mauchly et al. USA.
1945		Norlund levelled 21 km across Baltic Sea using lead pipe.
1945		Split of Carl Zeiss Jena to give Carl-Zeiss Obserkochen & VEB Carl Zeiss
1945		-46. Flare triangulation by British, US and Norway
1946		-51. Rice and van Steenwijk studies on deflection of plumbline
		Absolute gravity work by Bullard, Ivanov, Browne, Morelli, Jeffreys, Woollard
1946		Russian tri-axial ellipsoid. See p 84
1946		Dutch discovered radio astro with ex-war radar.
1946		Vaisala stellar triangulation
1947		Speert, USGS adjustment by electrical analogue.
1947		Electric eye for telescopes by Gigas
1947		-48. Fully automatic elevation recorders
1947		-48. Global triangulation initiated by Finns. Hirvonen in Brazil and
		Kukkamaki in W Africa
1948		Mears, Whitford USA telescope for occultation obs.
1948		Jungwirth modified submarine gyro compass to fit theodolite
1948		Invention of transistor by Bell Laboratories USA
1949		-65. Level testers of high precision. See p 85
1950		Reflecting telescope by Kern for 1st order triangulation
1950		Gyroscopes in aerial cameras. (Italy)
1950		Gyroscopes in theodolites by Fennel.
1950		Moves by Hotine, Marussi, Levallois, Dufour to replace geoid by quasi geoid
		Molodensky and Hirvonen defined by space coords instead of siurface coords.
1950		Hough & Whitten adjusted SW European & N African trig. blocks
1950		Van Heel,Moonen & Richardus used interference patterns in alignment svy.
1950		Honkasalo inver-mercury thermometer for baselines
1951		Automatic level Ni2 by Zeiss Oberkochen
1951		Fourth connection UK – France by triangulation.
1951		-59. Third geodetic levelling of Great britain
1952		Askania Askania micro-barometer for diff. of height.
1952		Random disturbances of earth rotation. Brouwer, USA.
1953		VEB Carl Zeiss 1″ theodolite 010
1953		Wankie and Sabi bases (S Rhod) by Bradford. Invar resistance thermometer.
1954		Ellenberger reported on elasticity of earth.
1954		Invention of geodimeter ??
1955		Diff. between dynamic and orthometric hts discussed in Rome
1956		Advent of satellites
1956		Irene Fisher geoid chart of USA
1956		Hough ellipsoid of Western hemisphere
1956		Obs of satellites by interferometer, Doppler effect and radar.
1957		Sea surface gravimeter by Graf.
1957		Fisher- Chovitz figure of earth. See p 88
1957		Jerie analogue computer
1957		-58. International Geophysical Year
1958		Baker-Nunn camera for satellite obs.
1958		Several independent adjustments of 68 European level loops. See pp 88,89
1958		Tellurometer traverses replace triangulation in Australia
1959		Development of super wide angle camera by Wild
1959		First spatial photograph of moon by Lunik III
1959		Prismastrolabium by Danjou.
1960		Fennel, Kassel gyrotheodolite with suspended gyroscope.
1960		Int. agreement of metre as 1 650 763.73 wavelengths krypton 86 in vacuo
1960		Yard – metre relation as 0.9144 m
1960		De Graaff Hunter theory on shape of earth suirface
1960		Harrison USA gravity measurement in aeroplane
1960		Astro-geodetic World Datum for geoid.
		Also agreement on standards of length. See p 89
1960		Mobile cameras for satellite geodesy
1961		Irene Fischer comprehensive study of shape of geoid.
1961		Cooperation between NASA and USCGS in geodetic satellite programme
1963		Fifth connection England – France by triangulation & trilateration
1963		Hydrostatic levelling using frozen lake Ijsselmeer
1964		Automatic level Zeiss Ni4 by Drodofsky. Spirit bubble as pendulum
1965		Light weight gyrotheodolites by Wild, MOM etc
1966		VEB Carl Zeiss astro-geodetic theo 0.2″
1967		Daylight signalling lamp with quartziodine globes. Australia
1967		Geodolite by Spectra Physics, USA
1967		VLBI introduced
1982		Macrometer V-1000 First commercial GPS for surveying
1993		Laser Scanning
2014		First use of UAV for surveying